Prostate Cancer Health Article

Treatment team

Prostate cancer is often treated by a team of specialists including a urologist (who may or may not perform surgery), a surgeon (if surgical treatment is used and it is not performed by the urologist), a medical oncologist, and, if radiation therapy is used, a radiation oncologist.

Clinical staging, treatments, and prognosis

Once cancer is detected during the microscopic examination of the prostate tissue during a biopsy or TURP, doctors will determine two different numerical scores that will help define the patient's treatment and prognosis.

Tumor grading

Initially, the pathologist will grade the tumor based on his or her examination of the biopsy tissue. The pathologist scores the appearance of the biopsy sample using the Gleason system. This system uses a scale of one to five based on the sample's similarity or dissimilarity to normal prostate tissue. If the tissue is very similar to normal tissue, it is still well-differentiated and given a low grading number, such as one or two. As the tissue becomes more and more abnormal (less and less differentiated), the grading number increases, up to five. Less differentiated tissue is considered more aggressive and more likely to be the source of metastases.

The Gleason grading system is best predictive of the prognosis of a patient if the pathologist gives two scores to a particular sample—a primary and a secondary pattern. The two numbers are then added together and that is the Gleason score reported to the patient. Thus, the lowest Gleason score available is two (a primary and secondary pattern score of one each). A typical Gleason score is five (which can be a primary score of two and a secondary score of three or visa-versa). The highest score available is 10, with a pure pattern of very undifferentiated tissue, that is, of grade five. The higher the score, the more abnormal behavior of the tissue, the greater the chance for metastases, and the more serious the prognosis after surgical treatment. A study found that the ten-year cancer survival rate without evidence of disease for grade two, three, and four cancers is 94% of patients. The rate is 91% for grade five cancers, 78% for grade six, 46% for grade seven, and 23% for grade eight, nine, and ten cancers.

Cancer staging

The second numeric score determined by the doctor will be the stage of the cancer, which takes into account the grade of the tumor determined by the pathologist. Based on the recommendations of the American Joint Committee on Cancer (AJCC), two kinds of data are used for staging prostate cancer. Clinical data is based on the external symptoms of the cancer, while histopathological data is based on surgical removal of the prostate and examination of its tissues. Clinical data is most useful to make treatment decisions, while pathological data is the best predictor of prognosis. For this reason, the staging of prostate cancer takes into account both clinical and histopathologic information. Specifically, doctors look at tumor size (T), lymph node involvement (N), the presence of visceral (internal organ) involvement (metastasis = M), and the grade of the tumor (G).

The classification of tumor as T1 means the cancer that is confined to the prostate gland and the tumor that is too small to be felt during a DRE. T1 tumors are often found after examination of tissue removed during a TURP. The T1 definition is subdivided into those cancers that show less than 5% cancerous cells in the tissue sample (T1a) or more than 5% cancerous cells in the tissue sample (T1b). T1c means that the biopsy was performed based on an elevated PSA result. The second tumor classification is T2, where the tumor is large enough to be felt during the DRE. T2a indicates that only the left or the right side of the gland is involved, while T2b means both sides of the prostate gland has tumor.

With a T3 tumor, the cancer has spread to the connective tissue near the prostate (T3a) or to the seminal vesicles as well (T3b). T4 indicates that cancer has spread within the pelvis to tissue next to the prostate such as the bladder's sphincter, the rectum, or the wall of the pelvis. Prostate cancer tends to spread next into the regional lymph nodes of the pelvis, indicated as N1. Prostate cancer is said to be at the M1 stage when it has metastasized outside the pelvis in distant lymph nodes (M1a), bone (M1b) or organs such as the liver or the brain (M1c). Pain, weight loss, and fatigue often accompany the M1 stage.

The grade of the tumor (G) can be assessed during a biopsy, TURP surgery, or after removal of the prostate. There are three grades recognized: G1, G2, and G3, indicating the tumor is well, moderately, or poorly differentiated, respectively. The G, LN, M descriptions are combined with the T definition to determine the stage of the prostate cancer.

• Stage I prostate cancer comprises patients that are T1a, N0, M0, G1.
• Stage II includes a variety of condition combinations including T1a, N0, M0, G2, 3 or 4; T1b, N0, M0, Any G; T1c, N0, M0, Any G; T1, N0, M0, Any G or T2, N0, M0, Any G.
• Stage III prostate cancer occurs when conditions are T3, N0, M0, any G.
• Stage IV is T4, N0, M0, any G; any T, N1, M0, any G; or any T, any N, M1, Any G.

Prognosis

The prognosis for cancers at Stages I and II is very good. For men treated with stage I or stage II disease, over 95% are alive after five years. Although the cancers of Stage III are more advanced, the five-year prognosis is still good, with 70% of men diagnosed at this stage still living. The spread of the cancer into the pelvis (T4), lymph (N1), or distant locations (M1) are very significant events, as the five-year survival rate drops to 30% for Stage IV.

Treatment options

The doctor and the patient will decide on the treatment mode after considering many factors. For example, the patient's age, the stage of the disease, his general health, and the presence of any co-existing illnesses have to be considered. In addition, the patient's personal preferences and the risks and benefits of each treatment protocol are also taken into account before any decision is made.

SURGERY. For stage I and stage II prostate cancer, surgery is the most common method of treatment because it theoretically offers the chance of completely removing the cancer from the body. Radical prostatectomy involves complete removal of the prostate. The surgery can be done using a perineal approach, where the incision is made between the scrotum and the anus, or using a retropubic approach, where the incision is made in the lower abdomen. Perineal approach is also known as nerve-sparing prostatectomy, as it is thought to reduce the effect on the nerves and thus reduce the side effects of impotence and incontinence. However, the retropubic approach allows for the simultaneous removal of the pelvic lymph nodes, which can give important pathological information about the tumor spread.

The drawback to surgical treatment for early prostate cancer is the significant risk of side effects that impact the quality of life of the patient. Even using nerve-sparing techniques, studies by the National Cancer Institute (NCI) found that 60% to 80% of men treated with radical prostatectomy reported themselves as impotent (unable to achieve an erection sufficient for sexual intercourse) two years after surgery. This side effect can be sometimes countered by prescribing sildenafil citrate (Viagra). Furthermore, 8% to 10% of patients were incontinent in that time span. Despite the side effects, the majority of men were reported as satisfied with their treatment choice. Additionally, there is some evidence that the skill and the experience of the surgeon are central factors in the ultimate side effects seen.

A second method of surgical treatment of prostate cancer is cryosurgery or cryotherapy. Guided by ultrasound, surgeons insert up to eight cryoprobes through the skin and into close proximity with the tumor. Liquid nitrogen (temperature of -320.8 degrees F, or -196 C) is circulated through the probe, freezing the tumor tissue. In prostate surgery, a warming tube is also used to keep the urethra from freezing. Patients currently spend a day or two in the hospital following the surgery, but it could be an outpatient procedure in the near future. Recovery time is about one week. Side effects have been reduced in recent years, although impotence still affects almost all who have had cryosurgery for prostate cancer. Cryosurgery is considered a good alternative for those too old or sick to have traditional surgery or radiation treatments or when these more traditional treatments are unsuccessful. There is limited amount of information about the long-term efficacy of this treatment for prostate cancer.

RADIATION THERAPY. Radiation therapy involves the use of high-energy x rays to kill cancer cells or to shrink tumors. It can be used instead of surgery for stage I and II cancer. The radiation can either be administered from a machine outside the body (external beam radiation), or small radioactive pellets can be implanted in the prostate gland in the area surrounding the tumor, called brachytherapy or interstitial implantation. Pellets containing radioactive iodine (I-125), palladium (Pd 103), or iridium (Ir 192) can be implanted on an outpatient basis, where they remain permanently. The radioactive effect of the seeds last only about a year.

The side effects of radiation can include inflammation of the bladder, rectum, and small intestine. Impotence and incontinence are often delayed side effects of the treatment. A study indicated that bowel control problems were more likely after radiation therapy when compared to surgery, but impotence and incontinence were more likely after surgical treatment. Long-term results with radiation therapy are dependent on stage. A review of almost 1, 000 patients treated with megavoltage irradiation showed 10-year survival rates to be significantly different by T-stage: T1 (79%), T2 (66%), T3 (55%), and T4 (22%). There does not appear to be a large difference in survival between external beam or interstitial treatments.

HORMONE THERAPY.

Hormone therapy is commonly used when the cancer is in an advanced stage and has spread to other parts of the body, such as stage III or stage IV. Prostate cells need the male hormone testosterone to grow. Decreasing the levels of this hormone, or inhibiting its activity, will cause the cancer to shrink. Hormone levels can be decreased in several ways. Orchiectomy is a surgical procedure that involves complete removal of the testicles, leading to a decrease in the levels of testosterone. Another method tricks the body by administering the female hormone estrogen. When this is given, the body senses the presence of a sex hormone and stops making the male hormone testosterone. However, there are some unpleasant side effects to hormone therapy. Men may have "hot flashes, " enlargement and tenderness of the breasts, or impotence and loss of sexual desire, as well as blood clots, heart attacks, and strokes, depending on the dose of estrogen.

WATCHFUL WAITING.

Watchful waiting means no immediate treatment is recommended, but doctors keep the patient under careful observation. This is often done using periodic PSA tests. This option is generally used in older patients when the tumor is not very aggressive and the patients have other, more life-threatening, illnesses. Prostate cancer in older men tends to be slow-growing. Therefore, the risk of the patient dying from prostate cancer, rather than from other causes, is relatively small.

Alternative and complementary therapies

A mixture of eight Chinese herbs have been tested in the treatment of prostate cancer that does not respond to hormone therapy. The mixture is called PC-SPES and is believed to stimulate the production of hormones in the body. In a small study, the herbal mixture causes a drop of 52% in PSA levels for 87% of the study participants. The herb mixture does have side effects, including blood clots and nipple tenderness and the potency of the herbs suffers from batch variation.