Rheumatoid Arthritis (RA) : Risk Factors

Women's health differs from men's health, and not just with respect to reproduction. To understand and examine these differences appropriately, the variables of sex and gender are each relevant. In general, sex refers to biological, anatomical, physiological, and hormonal variations that, on average, distinguish females and males. By contrast, gender refers to the differences between men and women, boys and girls, that stem from how behaviors, abilities, responsibilities, and overall values are ascribed differentially to males and to females in a society. Sometimes separately, but more often through their interactions, sex and gender are important determinants of health. For instance, there are sex-linked diseases (e.g., hemophilia) that only rarely and under exceptional circumstances affect women. There are also sex-specific cancers (e.g., of the prostate [men] and of the ovaries [women]), as well as specific conditions that, because of their biological exclusivity to males or females, can only occur in one or other sex (e.g., pregnancy-related conditions in women; testicular disorders in men). Generally, however, observed differences in the frequency of some health outcome between women and men do not reflect a sex (biologic) difference. Rather, most differences derive from a complex set of interactions between sex (biology) and gender (roles and expectations). Every society has its own economic, social, cultural, and political arrangements that make being a woman different from being a man. The gender norms and expectations applied to women and to men that derive from these arrangements vary from place to place, change overtime, and are always affected by other features (e.g., age, class, ethnicity, sexual orientation, ability) that are attached to an individual. As a result of the gender differences assigned to them, individuals will experience their lives differently according to whether they are defined as male or female. Accordingly, women and men will have different exposures to different risks, different responses to the same exposures, different patterns to seeking treatment, and different needs for and responses to public health programs. These all contribute to differences in the frequency and distribution of diseases between them. Consequently, to understand and respond to most human health and sickness issues, clarifying the interaction between sex-linked factors and gender-based factors is critical; the expectations, norms, and stereotypes associated with the roles of men and women play out in their health, strongly influencing symptoms, treatments, and policies. As an example, consider the relation of work to health. Much research has shown that underemployment and lack of control over work situations or job demands are associated with increased levels of stress and poor health. These employment and working conditions differ according to gender, and women in the paid workforce in North America are more likely than men to have undervalued and underpaid jobs in the service sector, to work part-time, to have interruptions of their careers because of family responsibilities, and to experience high-demand, low-control conditions at work. All these factors influence their risks for (exposure to) disease, what they do when ill, how health care professionals respond to and treat them, and what public policies of work-related health promotion and health protection are developed. Thus, to examine the relation of work to health without accounting for the influence of gender would be to ignore how women may be exposed to health-damaging agents unlike those their male colleagues face; how they may have less access to private health care (United States) or necessary medications that must be paid for out-of-pocket (United States and Canada); and how they may have reduced opportunities to attend health programs, such as screening programs, because after-work hours are filled with child-care duties more often for women than for

Smoking is the inhalation of the smoke of burning tobacco encased in cigarettes, pipes, and cigars. Casual smoking is the act of smoking only occasionally, usually in a social situation or to relieve stress . A smoking habit is a physical addiction to tobacco products. Many health experts now regard habitual smoking as a psychological addiction, too, and one with serious health consequences.

Question: What are the negative effects of smoking? Answer: Smokers have an increased risk of the following: Lung cancer; Lung disease; Heart attack; Heart disease; Hypertension; Stroke; Oral cancer; Bladder cancer; Pancreatic cancer; Cervical cancer; Pregnancy complications; Low birth weight babies; Early menopause; Lower estrogen level for women; Facial wrinkles. Children of smokers have an increased risk of the following: Sudden infant death syndrome; Respiratory infections; Lung cancer; Ear infections.

When you smoke, toxins are carried by your blood to every organ in your body. At the same time, the carbon monoxide in cigarette smoke keeps red blood cells from carrying as much oxygen as normal.

Use of cigarettes and other tobacco products to engage in a habit that almost always leads to addiction. Every day 3,000 young people light up their first cigarette; every year a million teenagers become regular smokers. Adolescent smoking has risen steadily throughout the 1990s, following a sharp decline in the 1970s that leveled off in the 1980s. A 1994 report by the office of the U.S. Surgeon General found that approximately 28% of teens smoked in 1991 and 1992. By 1995 a survey of high school students released by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention found that the prevalence of teen smoking had increased to 34.8%. The study also found that smoking was most prevalent among white teenagers (38%), followed by Hispanics (34%), and blacks (19%). In addition to smoking more, teenagers are also starting to smoke earlier. The average teen smokes his or her first cigarette at the age of 13, becoming a regular smoker at 1444. A 1996 survey by the Public Health Service found that 21% of eighth graders and 30% of tenth graders surveyed smoked. The harmful effects of teenage smoking are known to be both short-term and long-term. During adolescence, smoking interferes with ongoing lung growth and development, preventing the attainment of full lung function. Teenagers who smoke are less fit than their nonsmoking peers and more apt to experience shortness of breath, dizziness, coughing, and excess phlegm in their lungs. They are also more vulnerable to colds, flu, pneumonia, and other respiratory problems. Smoking for even a short time can produce a chronic smoker's cough. In addition to respiratory problems and a diminished level of overall well-being in adolescence, teenage smoking is also responsible for health problems in adulthood. It is estimated that one-third of the teenagers who start smoking each year will eventually die of diseases related to tobacco use—diseases that will shorten their lives by an average of 12-15 years. Cigarette smoking is a major risk factor for cardiovascular disease, including coronary heart disease, atherosclerosis (hardening of the arteries), and stroke. The 1994 Surgeon General's report links teenage smoking to cardiovascular disease in both adolescents and adults. The same report cites evidence that the length of time a person has smoked has a greater impact on the risk of developing lung cancer and other smoking-related cancers than the number of cigarettes smoked—in other words, starting to smoke at an early age is an even greater health risk than being a heavy smoker. Several factors have been cited as inducements for teenagers to begin smoking. It is generally agreed that the most important is peer pressure. Having friends who smoke makes smoking appear desirable to teens and makes them feel different or left out if they don't smoke also. (Many teenagers overestimate the prevalence of teen smoking.) At parties or in other social situations, smoking can help teenagers mask or cope with feelings of insecurity or self-consciousness. They also use it—as adults do—to help them cope with a broad range of Stressors and negative feelings. Other factors cited as playing a role in teenage smoking include curiosity, boredom, and the desire to rebel against parents and other authority figures. Teenagers are much less likely to model parental smoking behavior than that of their peers. The main impact parents can have on teen smoking is to actively discourage their children from smoking by discussing its harmful effects and to be supportive of their children in other areas of their lives. The 6.2 billion dollars that the tobacco industry spends every year on advertising has also been shown to have a significant effect on teenage smoking. In spite of industry denials, teenagers are a crucial market for cigarette manufacturers. Since the vast majority of people who smoke start before the age of 18, this is the prime period during which tobacco companies must make their appeal to

Right away, you may cough, wheeze, and have a sore throat—that’s the tar clogging up your lungs. You may also have a headache, feel dizzy, and be nauseated—that’s the nicotine in your brain. Over time, you risk lung and throat cancer, and lung diseases like emphysema and bronchitis.

Smoking is the inhalation of the smoke of burning tobacco encased in cigarettes, pipes, and cigars. Casual smoking is the act of smoking only occasionally, usually in a social situation or to relieve stress . A smoking habit is a physical addiction to tobacco products. Many health experts now regard habitual smoking as a psychological addiction, too, and one with serious health consequences.

Hear the facts about smoking from those who have been doing it for a few years. Find a smoker or two. Ask a few questions. See if their answers sound something like these.

Smoking during pregnancy reduces oxygen and blood flow to your baby. This may cause bleeding problems that can put your pregnancy at risk.

Ex-smokers' risk of heart disease may eventually approach that of a lifetime nonsmoker, but their risk of lung cancer is less likely to fade, even after long periods of time.

Smoking is the inhalation of the smoke of burning tobacco that is used mostly in three forms: cigarettes, pipes, and cigars.

When you are trying to quit, the support of friends, coworkers and family members can make a big difference.

One of the major triggers for asthma attacks is cigarette smoke. Cigarette, pipe or cigar smoke is especially harmful to people with asthma because it damages the cells in the lungs that make the protective coating lining the bronchial tubes.

Quitting smoking is one of the best things you can do to keep your heart disease from getting worse. Smoking reduces oxygen flow to your heart, speeds plaque buildup, and increases your risk for heart attack.

Detailed information on respiratory diseases and smoking, chronic bronchitis, emphysema, lung cancer

Life may seem out of control, but you're really making progress. You're going through withdrawal, which is how your body recovers from smoking.

The most common reasons include: "Smoking gives me more energy. I smoke to keep from slowing down. I reach for a cigarette when I need a lift. When I'm tired, smoking perks me up."

Everybody knows smoking is bad for your health. Now here's something you may not know: Smoking is bad for your looks. It's true.

Detailed information on teens and smoking

Do you have healthy gums? You may kiss them goodbye if you're a smoker.

Smoking damages your arteries, and it’s thought that the damaged arteries in the discs and joints in your back may lead to pain and injury.

For most people, the best way to quit smoking is some combination of medicine, a method to change personal habits and emotional support.

Teens who smoke are more likely to quit if they can be convinced to participate in a cessation program that emphasizes the health risks of smoking, provides motivational encouragement and coping skills, and encourages a healthy overall lifestyle.

Smoking is an important and preventable cause of death and illness. However, as more money has been spent on smoking cessation programs, the incidence of cigarette smoking has risen. In 2002, 48 percent of men and 12 percent of women in the world were smokers (World Health Organization). Tobacco consumption increased from 1,100 million individuals during the early 1990s to 1,300 million by the year 2000 (United Nations Economic and Social Council). At this rate, the number of tobacco-related deaths is projected to reach more than 9 million by the year 2020. The number of tobacco-related deaths increased from 4.2 million to 4.9 million between 2000 and 2002, meaning that more than nine people die due to smoking-related illnesses every minute. Research indicates that tobacco causes more than twenty categories of fatal and disabling diseases, including lung cancer , cardiovascular disease, and respiratory diseases. However, tobacco is very addictive, and the majority of smokers have difficulty quitting even when they have a medical condition. For example, a 2000 study of 15,660 adults by the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality found that 38 percent of people with emphysema, 25 percent of people with asthma , 20 percent of people with hypertension and cardiovascular problems, and 19 percent of people with diabetes continue to smoke. Although smoking was responsible for their health conditions, they perceived that, since their health conditions already exist, quitting would not have an affect on their future health and well-being. A recent area of concern related to tobacco use has been nonsmokers' exposure to second-hand smoke. Parental smoking has been proven to contribute to increased rates of sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) in addition to chronic illnesses in children such as asthma, bronchitis, colds, and pneumonia . Pregnant women who chew tobacco, smoke, or are exposed to second-hand smoke have a higher risk of miscarriage and of giving birth to low birth weight babies, who are prone to infection. Women who smoke are more likely to be victims of primary and secondary infertility, to have delays in conceiving, and to have an increased risk of early menopause and low bone density ("Current Issues and Forthcoming Events"). Most women are unaware of these dangers. Not only can the expectant mother place her unborn fetus in danger, but she can also place herself at risk for future smoking-related diseases and early mortality. An illustration of cigarette smoke entering the lungs. Cigarette smoke contains over 4,000 chemicals, many of which are toxic or carcinogenic. Repeated inhalation of the smoke causes permanent damage to internal organs and reduces the body's ability to fight infection. [Todd Buck/Custom Medical Stock Photo, Inc. Reproduced by permission.] Quitting smoking at any age improves life expectancy. The 2002 Cancer Prevention Study examined the benefits of smoking cessation in 877,243 men and women in the United States. Life expectancy of smokers who quit before age thirty-five was extended by 8.5 years in men and by 7.7 years in women. The study found that smokers who quit at any age are subjected to meaningful life extensions (Taylor, et al.). In addition to a life free from smoking-related diseases, an individual who quits smoking can experience increased longevity. SEE ALSO C ANCER ; H EART D ISEASE ; L OW B IRTH W EIGHT I NFANT ; N UTRITIONAL D EFICIENCY ; P REGNANCY . Daphne C. Watkins

Among other things, keep a personal benefits log. Write down the benefits you experience from being smoke-free (for example, I can smell flowers again!) Write the specific occurrence, the date it first happened, and your reaction.

A smoker's recovery plan includes listing those activities that you have chosen to help reduce the pressures of nicotine withdrawal and staying smoke-free.

The personal motivation list will help you identify the benefits of quitting, for you, for your family, and for your friends.

I know that smoking is very bad for me. I've cut down to one cigarette after lunch and another after dinner each day, with two or three more on most weekend nights when I socialize. I really enjoy smoking, but I want to know if I'm harming myself.

Every day, nearly 6,000 teens and pre-teens try cigarettes for the first time, according to the American Lung Association. A third of these first-timers will end up becoming smokers.

When people consider the cost of smoking, they usually focus on the cost of the cigarettes alone. But that's only the first step.