Asthma : Supplements

Pycnogenol® is the patented trade name for a water extract of the bark of the French maritime pine ( Pinus pinaster ssp. atlantica ), which is grown in coastal south-west France. Pycnogenol® contains oligomeric proanthocyanidins (OPCs) as well as several other bioflavonoids: catechin, epicatechin, phenolic fruit acids (such as ferulic acid and caffeic acid), and taxifolin. Procyanidins are oligometric catechins found at high concentrations in red wine, grapes, cocoa, cranberries, apples, and some supplements such as Pycnogenol®. There has been some confusion in the U.S. market regarding OPC products containing Pycnogenol® or grape seed extract (GSE), because one of the generic terms for chemical constituents ("pycnogenols") is the same as the patented trade name (Pycnogenol®). Some GSE products were formerly erroneously labeled and marketed in the U.S. as containing "pycnogenols." Although GSE and Pycnogenol® do contain similar chemical constituents (primarily in the OPC fraction), the chemical, pharmacological, and clinical literature on the two products is distinct. The term Pycnogenol® should therefore only be used to refer to this specific proprietary pine bark extract. Scientific literature regarding this product should not be referenced as a basis for the safety or effectiveness of GSE.

Pine bark extract is made from the bark of a European coastal pine tree called the Landes or maritime pine, whose scientific name is Pinus maritima . The maritime pine is a member of the Pineaceae family. Pine bark extract is a new nutritional supplement used for its antioxidant properties, which are believed to be effective for a wide range of healing and preventative purposes. Pine bark extract has been patented by a French researcher under the name Pycnogenol (pronounced pick-nah-jen-all). Pine bark extract has a 450-year-old legend surrounding it. There is a written account of an event that happened in 1534, when a French ship led by explorer Jacques Cartier became stranded in ice near Quebec, Canada. Cartier's crew became severely sick from scurvy, which used to be a fatal disease caused by a lack of vitamin C in the diet. Cartier's crew was saved when a Quebec Indian instructed them to drink a brew made from pine bark and needles. Four centuries later, a French researcher named Jacques Masquelier discovered the reason for the effectiveness of this remedy. A substance found in pine bark acts as an antioxidant in the body, and greatly increases the effectiveness of the vitamin C found in the pine needles. During the 1950s, Masquelier had heard the story of Cartier when he was in Canada performing research. He was investigating a group of substances called flavonols, which he originally found in peanut skins. Flavonols and bioflavonoids are substances in fruits and vegetables that give them their color. Masquelier found that these substances have beneficial effects in the body, particularly in improving circulation and repairing tissue. He later found that an abundant source of these substances was the bark of pine trees that grew on the coasts of southern France. Pine bark was also the most efficient source of the substance, because it took only warm water and pressure to extract the substance from trees that were considered a waste product. Masquelier called his pine bark extract Pycnogenol, and continued his research on pine bark extract and bioflavonoids for decades. In 1987, the United States awarded him a patent. Only Masquelier's pine bark extract can legally claim to have antioxidant properties. Antioxidants play a key role of repairing and protecting cells in the body. They help protect against free radicals, which are damaging byproducts of metabolism and exposure to environmental pollutants. Free radical damage is believed to contribute to aging , as well as too severe conditions including heart disease and cancer . Common antioxidants are vitamins A, C, E, and the mineral selenium . Researchers have termed the group of antioxidants found in pine bark extract oligomeric proanthocyanidins, or OPCs for short. OPCs (also referred to as PCOs) are some of the most powerful antioxidants available. OPCs are found in many common foods. In fact, OPCs are at the center of what has been called the French paradox. The French paradox has to do with the fact that the French eat as much cholesterol as Americans, yet have a significantly reduced incidence of heart disease. Researchers have theorized that one reason for this paradox is the French consumption of red wine with meals. Red wine is rich in bioflavonoids, including OPCs, which have been shown to protect blood vessels from cholesterol. Another OPC supplement on the market besides pine bark extract is grape seed extract , which is the cheapest and most widely used source of OPCs. Much research has been conducted on OPCs and on pine bark extract. In France, pine bark extract and OPCs have been rigorously tested for safety and effectiveness, and pine bark extract is a registered drug. Pine bark extract has been shown to contain a powerful antioxidant that helps protect cells from free radical damage and increases the effectiveness of vitamin C. Pine bark extract has been shown to help lower cholesterol, and to decrease the risk and severity of atherosclerosis , or damage t

Coleus species have been used in the Asian traditional medicine to treat angina (chest pain), asthma, bronchitis, epilepsy, insomnia, painful urination, skin rashes, and a wide range of digestive problems. Since the 1970s, research was predominantly concentrated on forskolin, a root extract of Coleus forskohlii . Preliminary study suggests that forskolin may have clinical use in treating cardiovascular dilatation and bronchodilation, and reducing intra-ocular pressure. Although most studies have used the isolated forskolin extract, it is believed that the whole coleus plant may be more effective, due to the presence of multiple compounds that may act synergistically. Generally, coleus appears to be well tolerated with few adverse effects.

Coleus forskohlii is a perennial plant, with a strong, camphor-like odor. It is in the mint family. It grows well in warm temperate or subtropical areas. The plant is native to areas of India, Myanmar, Nepal, and Sri Lanka. Coleus has long been used in traditional Indian (Ayurvedic) medicine, but gained popularity when a chemical extract of the root called forskolin demonstrated properties that make it a potential treatment for asthma, bronchitis, glaucoma , congestive heart failure, and other conditions. Forskolin was first identified by Western researchers in the 1970s, but the effects of the whole coleus plant and its extracts have not been as well studied or understood. Another species of coleus, Coleus kilimandschari , is found in parts of Africa and has been used in Rwandan folk medicine to treat infections and autoimmune diseases. Recent studies of Rwandan coleus indicate that it is effective against a variety of disorders involving destruction of red blood cells. As of 2002, however, Rwandan coleus has not been studied as intensively as Coleus forskohlii , and its extracts await further analysis. Chinese research indicates that several diterpenoids found in the leaves and stems of coleus may be effective against leukemia cells. These recently discovered compounds, however, require further study and analysis.

Resin extracts from the Boswellia serrata tree have been found to have anti-inflammatory effects. Animal and laboratory studies suggest possible efficacy for inflammatory conditions such as inflammatory bowel disease, rheumatoid arthritis, and osteoarthritis, although high-quality human data are lacking. Initial human evidence suggests the efficacy of boswellia as a chronic therapy for asthma (but not for the relief of acute asthma exacerbations). Further studies are warranted in this area. As opposed to non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), long-term use of boswellia has not been shown to cause gastrointestinal irritation or ulceration, although adverse effects have not been well studied in humans.

Green tea is made from the dried leaves of Camellia sinensis , a perennial evergreen shrub. Green tea has a long history of use, dating back to China approximately 5,000 years ago. Green tea, black tea, and oolong tea are all derived from the same plant. Tea varieties reflect the growing region (for example, Ceylon or Assam), the district (for example, Darjeeling), the form (for example, pekoe is cut, gunpowder is rolled), and the processing method (for example, black, green, or oolong). India and Sri Lanka are the major producers of green tea. Historically, tea has been served as a part of various ceremonies, and has been used to stay alert during long meditations. A legend in India describes the story of Prince Siddhartha Gautama, the founder of Buddhism, who tore off his eyelids in frustration at his inability to stay awake during meditation while journeying through China. A tea plant is said to have sprouted from the spot where his eyelids fell, providing him with the ability to stay awake, meditate, and reach enlightenment. Turkish traders reportedly introduced tea to Western cultures in the 6th Century.

Green tea is produced from the leaves of the Camellia sinensis , or tea plant. Oolong and black tea are also produced from the plant, but are processed and oxidized in different manners. Of the three, green tea contains the highest levels of polyphenols, the antioxidant substance that is believed to be beneficial in protecting against both cancer and atherosclerosis . The tea plant is actually a variation of evergreen bush, with glossy green leaves and small white to pink flowers. The plants can reach a height of 30–40 ft (9–12 m) or taller in the wild, but are generally kept to a height of 6 ft (1.2 m) or less on the tea plantations and gardens where they are grown in China, Argentina, Japan, India, Indonesia, Kenya, Malawi, Sri Lanka, Turkey, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Tanzania. Tea plants are cultivated in countries where warm, rainy growing conditions are abundant, and are also frequently grown in high altitude areas. When tea plants reach maturity at three or four years of age, the young leaves and leaf buds—the parts of the plant highest in polyphenols—are harvested. Green tea is produced by steaming or roasting the leaves as soon as they are picked, and then rolling and drying the tea leaves to remove any moisture.

Selenium is a trace mineral found in soil, water, and some foods. It is an essential element in several metabolic pathways. Selenium deficiency can occur in areas where soil content of selenium is low, and may affect thyroid function and cause conditions such as Keshan disease. Selenium deficiency is also commonly seen in patients on total parenteral nutrition (TPN) as their sole source of nutrition. Gastrointestinal disorders may decrease the absorption of selenium resulting in depletion or deficiency. Selenium may be destroyed when foods are refined or processed. Specific dietary sources of selenium include brewer's yeast, wheat germ, butter, garlic, grains, sunflower seeds, Brazil nuts, walnuts, raisins, liver, kidney, shellfish (lobster, oyster, shrimp, scallops), fresh-water and salt-water fish (red snapper, salmon, swordfish, tuna, mackerel, halibut, flounder, herring, smelts). Selenium is also found in alfalfa, burdock root, catnip, fennel seed, ginseng, raspberry leaf, radish, horseradish, onion, chives, medicinal mushrooms (reishi, shiitake), and yarrow. The role of selenium in cancer prevention has been the subject of recent study and debate. Initial evidence from the Nutritional Prevention of Cancer (NPC) trial suggests that selenium supplementation reduces the risk of prostate cancer among men with normal baseline PSA (prostate specific antigen) levels, and low selenium blood levels. However, in this study selenium did not reduce the risk of lung, colorectal, or basal cell carcinoma of the skin, and actually increased the risk of squamous cell skin carcinoma. The ongoing Selenium and Vitamin E Cancer Prevention Trial (SELECT) aims to definitively address the role of selenium in prostate cancer prevention.

Selenium is an essential trace mineral. Small amounts of selenium are good for your health.

Selenium is a nonmetallic element with an atomic number of 34 and an atomic weight of 78.96. Its chemical symbol is Se. Selenium is most commonly found in nature in its inorganic form, sodium selenite. An organic form of selenium, selenomethionine, is found in foods.

Vitamin C (ascorbic acid) is a water-soluble vitamin, which is necessary in the body to form collagen in bones, cartilage, muscle, and blood vessels, and aids in the absorption of iron. Dietary sources of vitamin C include fruits and vegetables, particularly citrus fruits such as oranges. Severe deficiency of vitamin C causes scurvy. Although rare, scurvy includes potentially severe consequences, and can cause sudden death. Scurvy is treated with vitamin C, and should be under medical supervision. Many uses for vitamin C have been proposed, but few have been conclusively demonstrated as being beneficial in scientific studies. In particular, research in asthma, cancer, and diabetes remain inconclusive, while no benefits have been found in the prevention of cataracts or heart disease. The use of vitamin C in prevention/treatment of the common cold and respiratory infections remains controversial, with ongoing research. For cold prevention , more than 30 clinical trials including over 10,000 participants have examined the effects of taking daily vitamin C. Overall, no significant reduction in the risk of developing colds has been observed. In people who developed colds while taking vitamin C, no difference in severity of symptoms has been seen overall, although a very small significant reduction in the duration of colds has been reported (approximately 10% in adults and 15% in children). Notably, a subset of studies in people living in extreme circumstances, including soldiers in sub-arctic exercises, skiers, and marathon runners, have reported a significant reduction in the risk of developing a cold of approximately 50%. This area merits additional study, and may be of particular interest to elite athletes or military personnel. For cold treatment , numerous studies have examined the effects of starting vitamin C after the onset of cold symptoms. Overall, no significant benefits have been observed.

An essential water-soluble vitamin; ascorbic acid is the in vivo form of vitamin C.

Vitamin C is a water-soluble vitamin that is necessary for normal growth and development. Water-soluble vitamins dissolve in water. The body cannot store them. Leftover amounts of the vitamin leave the body through the urine. That means you need a continuous supply of such vitamins in your diet.

Vitamin C, or ascorbic acid, is naturally produced in fruits and vegetables. The vitamin, which can be taken in dietary or supplementary form, is absorbed by the intestines. That which the body cannot absorb is excreted in the urine. The body stores a small amount, but daily intake, preferably in dietary form, is recommended for optimum health. Certain health conditions may cause vitamin C depletion, including diabetes and high blood pressure. People who smoke and women who take estrogen may also have lower vitamin C levels. In addition, men are more likely to be vitamin C depleted, as are the elderly. High stress levels have also been linked to vitamin C deficiency. In addition, certain medical and surgical procedures may lower the levels of vitamin C in the body. It has been found that hemodialysis causes patients with kidney disease to lose as much as 66 mg per session. Similarly, patients who have had kidney transplants are at increased risk of vitamin C deficiency. Severe vitamin C deficiency leads to scurvy, a disease common on ships prior to the eighteenth century, due to the lack of fresh fruits and other dietary vitamin C sources. Symptoms of scurvy include weakness, bleeding, tooth loss, bleeding gums, bruising, and joint pain . Less serious vitamin C depletion can have more subtle effects such as weight loss, fatigue , weakened immune system (as demonstrated by repeated infections and colds), bruises that occur with minor trauma and are slow to heal, and slow healing of other wounds . Low vitamin C levels have also been associated with high blood pressure, increased heart attack risk, increased risk for developing cataracts , and a higher risk for certain types of cancer (i.e., prostate, stomach, colon, oral, and lung).

Lactobacilli are bacteria that normally live in the human small intestine and vagina. Lactobacillus acidophilus is generally considered to be beneficial because it produces vitamin K, lactase, and anti-microbial substances such as acidolin, acidolphilin, lactocidin, and bacteriocin. Multiple human trials report benefits of L. acidophilus for bacterial vaginosis. Other medicinal uses of L. acidophilus are not sufficiently studied to form clear conclusions. The term "probiotic" is used to describe organisms that are used medicinally, including bacteria such as L. acidophilus and yeast such as Saccharomyces boulardii . Although generally believed to be safe with few side effects, oral L. acidophilus should be avoided in people with intestinal damage, a weakened immune system, or with overgrowth of intestinal bacteria.

Probiotics are beneficial bacteria (sometimes referred to as "friendly germs") that help to maintain the health of the intestinal tract and aid in digestion. They also help keep potentially harmful organisms in the gut (harmful bacteria and yeasts) under control. Most probiotics come from food sources, especially cultured milk products. Probiotics can be consumed as capsules, tablets, beverages, powders, yogurts and other foods. Pro biotics should not be confused with pre biotics. Prebiotics are complex sugars (such as lactulose, lactitol, a variety of fructo-oligosaccharides and inulin) that are used as fuel by the healthful bacteria to stimulate their growth and activity while suppressing the growth and activity of harmful organisms. Other foods that support probiotic activity include Japanese miso, tempeh, kefir, raw milk, kombucha, bananas, garlic and onions. When prebiotics and probiotics are combined in one product, it is called a syn biotic. Probiotics work by colonizing the small intestine and crowding out disease-causing organisms, thereby restoring proper balance to the intestinal flora. They compete with harmful organisms for nutrients and may also produce substances that inhibit growth of harmful organisms in the gut. Probiotic bacteria have been found to stimulate the body's immune system. They may also aid in several gastrointestinal illnesses such as inflammatory bowel diseases, antibiotic-related diarrhea, Clostridium difficile toxin-induced colitis, infectious diarrhea, hepatic encephalopathy, irritable bowel syndrome and allergy. Probiotics have been found to enhance the digestion and absorption of proteins, fats, calcium and phosphorus. They may help overcome lactose intolerance. Finally they may help restore healthful bacteria after a course of antibiotic therapy has altered the normal gastrointestinal flora.

Vitamin B6 (pyridoxine) is required for the synthesis of the neurotransmitters serotonin and norepinephrine, and for myelin formation. Pyridoxine deficiency in adults principally affects the peripheral nerves, skin, mucous membranes, and the blood cell system. In children, the central nervous system (CNS) is also affected. Deficiency can occur in people with uremia, alcoholism, cirrhosis, hyperthyroidism, malabsorption syndromes, congestive heart failure (CHF), and in those taking certain medications. Mild deficiency of vitamin B6 is common. Major sources of vitamin B6 include: cereal grains, legumes, vegetables (carrots, spinach, peas), potatoes, milk, cheese, eggs, fish, liver, meat, and flour. Pyridoxine is frequently used in combination with other B vitamins in vitamin B complex formulations.

Water-soluble, B complex vitamin.

Vitamin B6 is a water-soluble vitamin. Water-soluble vitamins dissolve in water. The body cannot store them. Leftover amounts of the vitamin leave the body through the urine. That means you need a continuous supply of such vitamins in your diet.

Pyridoxine, or vitamin B 6 , is a member of the water-soluble family of B vitamins. It is necessary in the processes to metabolize proteins, fats, and carbohydrates, to make hormones and neurotransmitters, and to support the immune system. It also plays a role in the production of normal, healthy red blood cells and some of the neurotransmitters needed for proper nervous system function. In conjunction with folic acid and cobalamin, it acts to reduce homocysteine levels, thus lowering the risk of developing heart disease .

Butterbur is a perennial shrub, found throughout Europe as well as parts of Asia and North America. It is usually found in wet, marshy ground, in damp forests, and adjacent to rivers or streams. The leaves of the plant are responsible for its botanical and common names. The common name is attributed to the large leaves being used to wrap butter during warm weather. Butterbur has been traditionally used as an antispasmodic and analgesic (pain reliever), specifically for conditions afflicting the stomach, bile ducts, and duodenum (part of small intestine). Butterbur is believed to help strengthen digestion and improve obstructed bile flow. Butterbur has also been given for inflammation of the urinary tract and cramps. There is compelling initial evidence from human trials to suggest benefits in prevention of migraine headache. Evidence in support of use for allergic rhinitis prevention is also promising. Benefits have not been demonstrated scientifically for any other condition. Use should be limited to commercially available products free of pyrrolizidine alkaloids that are generally believed to be well-tolerated.

Dietary sources of omega-3 fatty acids include fish oil and certain plant/nut oils. Fish oil contains both docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), while some nuts (English walnuts) and vegetable oils (canola, soybean, flaxseed/linseed, olive) contain alpha-linolenic acid (ALA). There is evidence from multiple studies supporting intake of recommended amounts of DHA and EPA in the form of dietary fish or fish oil supplements lowers triglycerides, reduces the risk of death, heart attack, dangerous abnormal heart rhythms, and strokes in people with known cardiovascular disease, slows the buildup of atherosclerotic plaques ("hardening of the arteries"), and lowers blood pressure slightly. However, high doses may have harmful effects, such as an increased risk of bleeding. Although similar benefits are proposed for alpha-linolenic acid, scientific evidence is less compelling, and beneficial effects may be less pronounced. Some species of fish carry a higher risk of environmental contamination, such as with methylmercury.

Antilipemic agent; combination consisting predominantly of ethyl esters of eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA).

Cordyceps sinensis , the Cordyceps species most widely used as a dietary supplement, naturally grows on the back of the larvae of a caterpillar from the moth Hepialus armoricanus Oberthur found mainly in China, Nepal, and Tibet. The mycelium invades the caterpillar and eventually replaces the host tissue. The stroma (fungal fruit body) grows out of the top of the caterpillar. The remaining structures of the caterpillar along with the fungus are dried and sold as the dietary supplement cordyceps. Commonly known as "dong chong xia cao" (summer-plant, winter-worm) in Chinese, cordyceps has been used as a tonic food in China and Tibet and has been used as a food supplement and tonic beverage among the rich because of its short supply due to over harvesting. It is also an ingredient in soups and other foods used traditionally in Chinese medicine for thousands of years helping debilitated patients recover from illness. Cordyceps is used therapeutically for asthma, bronchitis, chemoprotection, exercise performance, hepatitis B, hepatic cirrhosis, hyperlipidemia (high cholesterol), as an immunosuppressive agent, and in chronic renal failure. The fungus became popular in 1993 when two female Chinese athletes, who admitted using cordyceps supplements, beat the world records in the track and field competition at the Stuttgart World Championships for the 1,500-, 3,000-, and 10,000-meter runs. The women were drug tested for any banned substances such as steroids and were negative. Their coach attributed the performance to the cordyceps supplementation.

Cordyceps sinensis , also called Chinese caterpillar fungus, Cs-4, Dong Chong Xia Caoor , or semitake , is a fungus native to the Tibetan plateau in China. The fungus is parasitic, and grows in the moth caterpillar. Spores enter the host, germinate, and ultimately kill the larva. Although species of cordyceps are seen in Europe and the Americas, only the Chinese form has been used medically.

Borage, whose botanical name is Borago officinalis , is an annual herb in the Boraginaceae family. There are as many as 2,500 species in this family of plants. The specific designation officinalis indicates the herb's inclusion in official listings of medicinal plants. Borage is a wild-growing, hardy native of the Mediterranean region, cultivated and naturalized throughout Great Britain and North America. Traditionally associated with courage, borage was used to flavor the wine for soldiers preparing for battle. The English word "borage" may be derived from the word borrach , a Celtic word meaning "a person of courage." In folk tradition throughout its long history of recorded use, borage was believed to dispel melancholy and ease grief and sadness. According to the ancient Greek physician Dioscorides, borage can "cheer the heart and lift the depressed spirits." Common names for the herb include burrage, common bugloss, star flower, tailwort, or beebread. Borage self-seeds freely and flourishes in rich, well-drained soil in full sun. It is a good companion herb in the cottage garden, attracting honey bees and imparting strength and insect resistance to nearby plants, particularly strawberry and tomato. Borage's silvery-green, oblong to ovate, textured leaves form a basal rosette, then grow alternately up a succulent hollow round stem containing a clear mucilage. The leaves and sprawling branches are covered in bristly white hairs that impart a silvery sheen to the herb and are irritating to the skin on contact. Borage can reach a height of 2 ft (0.6 m), with leaves as long as 5 in (13 cm). The five-petaled star-shaped blue flowers, each with five black anthers, grow in loose, downward-turning clusters at the apex of the stems. Borage may bloom continuously from early spring until frost. The large, brownish-black seeds are three-sided. They may be viable for as long as eight years. The roots are shallow and spreading.

Omega-6 fatty acids are one of two groups of essential fatty acids (EFAs) that are required in human nutrition . (The other is the omega-3 fatty acid group.) Omega-6 fatty acids include linoleic acid and its derivatives. Essential means that these fatty acids must be consumed in the diet because humans cannot manufacture them from other dietary fats or nutrients, nor can they be stored in the body. They must be consumed daily to meet the body's requirements. They are macronutrients, required in amounts of grams per day (compared to micronutrients such as vitamins, which are required in milligrams per day). EFAs provide energy and are also components of nerve cells, cellular membranes, and are converted to hormone-like substances known as prostaglandins. In the body, prostaglandins and EFAs are necessary for normal physiology, including: producing steroids and synthesizing hormones regulating pressure in the eye, joints, and blood vessels mediating immune response regulating bodily secretions and their viscosity dilating or constricting blood vessels regulating collateral circulation directing endocrine hormones to their target cells regulating smooth muscles and autonomic reflexes being primary constituents of cell membranes regulating the rate of cell division maintaining the fluidity and rigidity of cellular membranes regulating the inflow and out-flux of substances into and out of cells transporting oxygen from red blood cells to the tissues maintaining proper kidney function and fluid balance keeping saturated fats mobile in the blood stream preventing blood cells from clumping together (conglomeration, which is the cause of atherosclerotic plaque, and blood clots , can be a cause of stroke ) mediating the release of inflammatory substances from cells that may trigger allergic conditions regulating nerve transmission and communication being the primary energy source for the heart muscle EFAs are therapeutic, and clinical trials have shown that EFAs protect against such conditions as heart disease ; cancer ; autoimmune diseases, including rheumatoid arthritis and multiple sclerosis ; skin diseases, including acne, atopic eczema , and psoriasis ; and may protect against stroke. The prevalence of heart disease in populations has been shown to be inversely proportional to the relative concentration of linoleic acid in the diet. Both linoleic acid and its derivatives are obtained from plant and animal sources. Plant sources include unprocessed, unheated vegetable oils such as corn, sunflower seed, safflower, soy, sesame, and cottonseed oils. They are also found in plant materials such as evening primrose, black currant seeds, and gooseberry oils as well as in raw nuts and seeds, legumes, and leafy greens. Animal sources of omega-6 fatty acids (although in smaller amounts than in plants) are lean meats, organ meats, and breast milk. Linoleic acid is an 18-carbon long polyunsaturated fatty acid containing two double bonds. Its first double bond occurs at the sixth carbon from the omega end, classifying it as an omega-6 oil. As linoleic acid is absorbed and metabolized in the human body, it is converted into a derivative fatty acid, gamma linoleic acid (GLA), which is converted into di-homo-gamma linoleic acid (DGLA) and arachidonic acid (AA). The DGLA and AA are then converted into two types of prostaglandins by adding two carbon molecules and removing hydrogen molecules. There are three families of prostaglandins, PGE1, PGE2, and PGE3. DGLA is converted to PGE1, while AA is converted into PGE2. PGE3 is made by the conversion of omega-3 fatty acids . Both PGE1 and PGE3, anti-inflammatory agents, protect against coronary disease by keeping blood platelets slippery and flowing, thus preventing blood clotting. PGE2 is inflammatory and increases platelet stickiness and blood clotting. All three forms must be present to ensure a functioning clotting system. There must be enough PGE2 to ensure healthy clotting, but enough PGE1 and PGE3

Fatty acids are organic compounds composed of carbon chains of varying lengths, with an acid group on one end and hydrogen bound to all the carbons of the chain. Essential fatty acids (EFAs) are those that are necessary for health, but cannot be synthesized by the body. Therefore, it is important to supply the body with EFAs through one's daily dietary intake. EFAs are also called vitamin F or polyunsaturates. They are important ingredients for the growth and maintenance of cells. The body utilizes essential fatty acids for hormone production, specifically for the production of prostaglandins , which aid in reducing hypertension , migraine headaches, and arthritis . Essential fatty acids offer many positive effects for the body, including the nourishment of skin and hair; reduction of blood pressure , cholesterol , and triglyceride levels; prevention of arthritis and inflammation; and the reduction of the risk of blood clotting . Furthermore, essential fatty acids help protect the body from cardiovascular disease, candidiasis , eczema , and psoriasis , and they play a critical role in brain development and in the transmission of nerve impulses.

Eucalyptus oil is used commonly as a decongestant and expectorant for upper respiratory tract infections or inflammations, as well as for various musculoskeletal conditions. The oil is found in numerous over-the-counter cough and cold lozenges as well as in inhalation vapors or topical ointments. Veterinarians use the oil topically for its reported antimicrobial activity. Other applications include as an aromatic in soaps or perfumes, as flavoring in foodstuffs or beverages, and as a dental or industrial solvent. High quality scientific evidence is currently lacking. Eucalyptus oil contains 70-85% 1,8-cineole (eucalyptol), which is also present in other plant oils. Eucalyptol is used as an ingredient in some mouthwash and dental preparations, as an endodontic solvent, and may possess antimicrobial properties. Listerine® mouthrinse is a combination of essential oils (eucalyptol, menthol, thymol, methyl salicylate), which has been shown to be efficacious for the reduction of dental plaque and gingivitis. Topical use or inhalation use of eucalyptus oil at low concentrations may be safe, although significant and potentially lethal toxicity has been consistently reported with oral use, and may occur with inhalation use as well. All routes of administration should be avoided in children.

A bacterium that creates an environment unfavorable to the overgrowth of potentially pathogenic fungi and bacteria; used as an antidiarrheal agent.

The thymus is a lobular gland located under the breastbone near the thyroid gland. It reaches its maximum size during early childhood and plays a large role in immune function. The thymus is responsible for the production of T-lymphocytes, as well as the production of various hormones including thymosin, thymopoeitin, thymulin, thymic humoral factor, and serum thymic factor. These hormones may be involved in the increase in lymphokines (interleukin 2, interferon, colony stimulating factor), increase of interleukin 2 receptors, and regulation of weight. With age, the thymus is replaced by fat and connective tissue. According to legend, glandular or organotherapy, which refers to the use of animal tissues or cell preparations to improve physiologic functioning and support the natural healing process, first gained popularity in the early to mid 1900s. The idea of homeopathic glandular therapy was first introduced almost 200 years ago. Thymus extracts for nutritional supplements are usually derived from young calves (bovine). Bovine thymus extracts are found in capsules and tablets as a dietary supplement. Thymus extract is commonly used to treat primary immunodeficient states, bone marrow failure, autoimmune disorders, chronic skin diseases, recurrent viral and bacterial infections, hepatitis, allergies, chemotherapy side effects, and cancer. Most basic and clinical research involving oral and injectable thymus extract has been conducted in Europe. Clinical trials in humans suggest promising results in terms of allergies, asthma, cancer, chemotherapeutic side effects, cardiomyopathy, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, HIV/AIDS, immunostimulation, liver disease, respiratory tract infections, systemic lupus erythematosus, and tuberculosis. However, not all study results agree, and properly randomized, double-blind clinical trials are still needed in many fields. Future areas of research include (but are not limited to) rheumatoid arthritis, warts, urinary tract in...

Black tea is made from the dried leaves of Camellia sinensis , a perennial evergreen shrub. Black tea has a long history of use, dating back to China approximately 5,000 years ago. Green tea, black tea, and oolong tea are all derived from the same plant. Black tea is a source of caffeine, a methylxanthine which stimulates the central nervous system, relaxes smooth muscle in the airways to the lungs (bronchioles), stimulates the heart, and acts on the kidney as a diuretic (increasing urine). One cup of tea contains approximately 50 milligrams of caffeine, depending on the strength and size of cup (as compared to coffee which contains 65 to 175 milligrams of caffeine per cup). Tea also contains polyphenols (catechins, anthocyanins, phenolic acids), tannin, trace elements, and vitamins. The tea plant is native to Southeast Asia that can grow up to a height of 40 feet, but is usually maintained at a height of two to three feet by regular pruning. The first spring leaf buds, called the first flush , are considered the highest-quality leaves. When the first flush leaf bud is picked, another one grows, which is called the second flush , and this continues until an autumn flush . The older leaves picked farther down the stems are considered to be of poorer quality. Tea varieties reflect the growing region (for example, Ceylon or Assam), the district (for example, Darjeeling), the form (for example, pekoe is cut, gunpowder is rolled), and the processing method (for example, black, green, or oolong). India and Sri Lanka are the major producers of black tea. Historically, tea has been served as a part of various ceremonies, and has been used to stay alert during long meditations. A legend in India describes the story of Prince Siddhartha Gautama, the founder of Buddhism, who tore off his eyelids in frustration at his inability to stay awake during meditation while journeying through China. A tea plant is said to have sprouted from the spot where his eyelids fell, providing ...

Omega-3 fatty acids are one of two groups of fatty acids—the omega-3s and the omega-6s—that are vital to human life. They are called essential fatty acids (EFAs), which the body cannot make but absolutely needs for normal growth and development. These fats must be supplied by diet. People living in industrialized western countries eat up to 30 times more omega-6 than omega-3 fatty acids, resulting in a relative deficiency of omega-3 fats. Omega-6 metabolic products (inflammatory prostaglandins, thromboxanes, and leukotrienes) are formed in excessive amounts causing allergic and inflammatory disorders and making the body more prone to heart attacks, strokes, and cancer . Eating diets rich in omega-3 acids or taking fish oil supplements can restore the balance between the two fatty acids and can possibly reverse these disease processes.

English ivy ( Hedera helix ) is native to most of Europe and southwest Asia. Although it is often used as a landscaping groundcover in the United States, it is also an invasive species that is considered a noxious weed in some areas. Based on preliminary animal studies, English ivy leaf extract may have antimutagenic (anticancer) and antioxidant properties. In addition, it may also be beneficial for children with asthma or adults with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. However, more research is needed in all of these areas to assess English ivy's potential benefits.

Borage ( Borago officinalis ) is an herb native to Syria that has spread throughout the Middle East and Mediterranean. Borage flowers and leaves may be eaten and borage seeds are often pressed to produce oil very high in gamma-linolenic acid (GLA). Borage is popularly used for premenstrual syndrome (PMS) and menopausal symptoms. Borage is also popular among elderly women. Borage is known for its anti-inflammatory properties and has been studied for the treatment of gum disease, rheumatoid arthritis, and asthma. There is currently controversy about the safety of borage. Consumers should use caution when taking borage as there have been cases of poisoning after confusion with foxglove.

Perilla is a traditional crop of China, India, Japan, Korea, Thailand, and other Asian countries. In North America, it is occasionally called by its Japanese name, shiso . In North America, it is also known as purple mint, Chinese basil, or wild coleus. Perilla seed oil is used for cooking, as a drying oil, and as a fuel. Perilla seed oil is high in the omega-3 fatty acid, alpha-linolenic acid. Asian practitioners prescribe perilla for respiratory afflictions and prevention, pregnancy concerns, seafood poisoning, and 'incorrect energy balance.' Some evidence is available for the use of perilla oil for reduction in asthma symptoms, as well as use of perilla extract for seasonal allergies. More clinical evidence is required before recommendations can be made for any clinical usage of perilla.

Tylophora is a climbing perennial plant that grows in India. The leaves of tylophora have been traditionally used for treating asthma, earning the name of Tylophora asthmatica . In folk medicine, it has been used for other respiratory problems such as allergies, bronchitis and the common cold. It is also believed by some to have laxative and other purgative properties. Additionally, it has been employed to treat dysentery and joint pain. The only available clinical trials done on tylophora test its effectiveness in bronchial asthma. To date, there are no trials available examining its effectiveness in treating other conditions. The occurrence of adverse events that occur when the leaf of tylophora is taken orally seems to be reduced when the leaves are taken in capsule form instead of chewing.

Vitamin E is a fat-soluble vitamin that acts as an antioxidant.

Vitamin E is an antioxidant responsible for proper functioning of the immune system and for maintaining healthy eyes and skin. It is actually a group of fat soluble compounds known as tocopherols (i.e., alpha tocopherol and gamma tocopherol). Gamma tocopherol accounts for approximately 75% of dietary vitamin E. Vitamin E rich foods include nuts, cereals, beans, eggs, cold-pressed oils, and assorted fruits and vegetables. Because vitamin E is a fat soluble vitamin, it requires the presence of fat for proper absorption. Daily dietary intake of the recommended daily allowance (RDA) of vitamin E is recommended for optimum health. Vitamin E is absorbed by the gastrointestinal system and stored in tissues and organs throughout the body. Certain health conditions may cause vitamin E depletion, including liver disease, celiac disease , and cystic fibrosis. Patients with end-stage renal disease (kidney failure) who are undergoing chronic dialysis treatment may be at risk for vitamin E deficiency. These patients frequently receive intravenous infusions of iron supplements, which can act against vitamin E. Vitamin E deficiency can cause fatigue , concentration problems, weakened immune system, anemia , and low thyroid levels. It may also cause vision problems and irritability. Low serum (or blood) levels of vitamin E have also been linked to major depression .

Vitamin E is a fat-soluble vitamin with antioxidant properties. Vitamin E exists in eight different forms ("isomers"): alpha, beta, gamma and delta tocopherol; and alpha, beta, gamma and delta tocotrienol. Alpha-tocopherol is the most active form in humans. Dosing and daily allowance recommendations for vitamin E are often provided in Alpha-Tocopherol Equivalents (ATE) to account for the different biological activities of the various forms of vitamin E, or in International Units (IU) which food and supplement labels may use. Vitamin E supplements are available in natural or synthetic forms. The natural forms are usually labeled with the letter "d" (for example, d-gamma-tocopherol), whereas synthetic forms are labeled "dl" (for example, dl-alpha-tocopherol). Vitamin E has been proposed for the prevention or treatment of numerous health conditions, often based on its antioxidant properties. However, aside from the treatment of vitamin E deficiency (which is rare), there are no clearly proven medicinal uses of vitamin E supplementation beyond the recommended daily allowance. There is ongoing research in numerous diseases, particularly in cancer and heart disease. Recent concerns have been raised about the safety of vitamin E supplementation, particularly in high doses. An increased risk of bleeding has been proposed, particularly in patients taking blood-thinning agents such as warfarin, heparin, or aspirin; or in patients with vitamin K deficiency. Recent evidence suggests that regular use of high-dose vitamin E supplements may increase the risk of death (from "all causes") by a small amount, although a different study found no effects on mortality in women who took vitamin E daily. Caution is warranted.

Fat-soluble vitamin; an antioxidant.

L-arginine was first isolated in 1886. In 1932, L-arginine was found to be required for the generation of urea, which is necessary for the removal of toxic ammonia from the body. In 1939, L-arginine was also shown to be required for the synthesis of creatine. Creatine degrades to creatinine at a constant rate, and is cleared from the body by the kidney. Arginine is considered a semi-essential amino acid, because although it is normally synthesized in sufficient amounts by the body, supplementation is sometimes required (for example, due to inborn errors of urea synthesis, protein malnutrition, excess ammonia production, excessive lysine intake, burns, infection, peritoneal dialysis, rapid growth, or sepsis). Symptoms of arginine deficiency include poor wound healing, hair loss, skin rash, constipation, and fatty liver. Arginine is a precursor of nitric oxide, which causes blood vessel relaxation (vasodilation). Preliminary evidence suggests that arginine may be useful in the treatment of medical conditions that are improved by vasodilation, such as angina, atherosclerosis, coronary artery disease, erectile dysfunction, heart failure, intermittent claudication/peripheral vascular disease, and vascular headache. Arginine also stimulates protein synthesis and has been studied for wound healing, bodybuilding, enhancement of sperm production (spermatogenesis), and prevention of wasting in people with critical illness. Arginine hydrochloride contains high chloride content and has been used for the treatment of metabolic alkalosis. This use should be under the supervision of a qualified healthcare professional. Most people likely do not need to take arginine supplements because the body usually makes sufficient amounts.

Arginine is one of the amino acids produced in the human body by the digestion, or hydrolysis of proteins. Arginine can also be produced synthetically. Because it is produced in the body, it is referred to as "nonessential," meaning that no food or supplements are necessary for humans to ingest. Arginine compounds can be used in treating people with liver dysfunction due to its role in promoting liver regeneration.

Evening primrose oil (EPO) contains an omega-6 essential fatty acid, gamma-linolenic acid (GLA), which is believed to be the active ingredient. EPO has been studied in a wide variety of disorders, particularly those affected by metabolic products of essential fatty acids. However, high-quality evidence for its use in most conditions is still lacking.

Evening primrose oil is a dietary supplement derived from the seeds of the evening primrose plant, Oenothera biennis . Its Latin name is derived from the Greek word for wine, reflecting the folk belief that the plant could relieve the symptoms of a hangover. Other names for the plant are tree primrose and sundrop. Native Americans used the leaves and bark of evening primrose as a sedative and astringent; it was given for stomach and liver complaints as well as disorders of the female reproductive system. More recently, the discovery of antioxidant and other properties of the seed oil has focused attention on its usefulness in treating a range of diseases and disorders, including as an anti-inflammatory, and for premenstrual syndrome (PMS), rheumatoid arthritis, diabetes, osteoporosis, ulcerative colitis, menopausal problems, and heart disease.